Representation of Ethnicity

Representation Of Ethnicity

  

The following information is taken from the RevisionWorld website which can be accessed by CLICKING HERE.

This is a Sociology revision page but there is lots of useful stuff here about gender, age, etc as well as ethnicity.

"Many sociologists believe that media representations of ethnic minority groups are problematic because they contribute to the reinforcement of negative racist stereotypes. Media representations of ethnic minorities may be undermining the concept of a tolerant multicultural society and perpetuating social divisions based on colour, ethnicity and religion.

Evidence suggests that, despite some progress, ethnic minorities are generally under-represented or are represented in stereotyped and negative ways across a range of media content. In particular, newspapers and television news have a tendency to present ethnic minorities as a problem or to associate Black people with physical rather than intellectual activities and to neglect, and even ignore, racism and the inequalities that result from it.

Stereotypical representations

Akinti (2003) argues that television coverage of ethnic minorities over focuses on

crime, AIDS in Africa and Black children’s under-achievement in schools, whilst

ignoring the culture and interests of a huge Black audience and their rich

contribution to British society. Akinti claims that news about Black communities

always seems to be ‘bad news’. Van Dijk’s (1991) content analysis of tens of

thousands of news items across the world over several decades confirms that

news representations of Black people can be categorised into several types of

stereotypically negative news.

Ethnic minorities as criminals – Black crime is the most frequent issue found in media news coverage of ethnic minorities. Van Dijk found that Black people, particularly African-Caribbeans, tend to be portrayed as criminals, especially in the tabloid press and more recently as members of organised gangs that push drugs and violently defend urban territories.

Ethnic minorities and moral panics – Watson (2008) notes that moral panics often result from media stereotyping of Black people as potentially criminal. This effect was first brought to sociological attention by Hall’s classic study of a 1970s moral panic that was constructed around the folk devil of the ‘Black mugger’. Further moral panics have developed around rap music, e.g. in 2003, ‘gangsta rap’ lyrics came under attack for contributing to an increase in gun crime.

Ethnic minorities as a threat – ethnic minorities are often portrayed as a threat to the majority White culture. It is suggested by some media that immigrants and asylum seekers are only interested in living in Britain because they wish to take fraudulent advantage of Britain’s ‘generous’ welfare state. Poole (2000), pre 9/11, argued that Islam has always been demonised and distorted by the Western media. It has traditionally been portrayed as a threat to Western interests. Representations of Islam have been predominantly negative and Muslims have been stereotyped as backward, extremist, fundamentalist and misogynist.

Ethnic minorities as dependent – news stories about less developed countries tend to focus on a ‘coup-war-famine-starvation syndrome’. Often such stories imply that the causes of the problems experienced by developing countries are self-inflicted – that they are the result of stupidity, tribal conflict, too many babies, laziness, corruption and unstable political regimes. External causes such as colonialism, tied aid, transnational exploitation and the unfair terms of world trade are rarely discussed by the British media.

Ethnic minorities as abnormal – the cultural practices of ethnic minorities are often called into question and labelled as deviant or abnormal. Many Asian people believe that the media treatment of arranged marriages was often inaccurate and did not reflect the way that the system had changed over time. Ameli et al. (2007) note that media discussion around the issue of the wearing of the hijab and the veil is also problematic, often suggesting that it is somehow an inferior form of dress compared with Western female dress codes and that it is unnecessary and problematic. It is often portrayed as a patriarchal and oppressive form of control that exemplifies the misogyny of Islam and symbolises the alleged subordinate position of women in Islam.

Ethnic minorities as unimportant – Van Dijk notes that some sections of the media imply that the lives of White people are somehow more important than the lives of non-White people. News items about disasters in developing countries are often restricted to a few lines or words unless there are also White or British victims. Moreover, Sir Ian Blair, the former Metropolitan police commissioner, claimed that institutionalised racism was present in the British media in the way they reported death from violent crime. He noted that Black and Asian victims of violent death did not get the same attention as White victims. However, the murder of the Black teenager Stephen Lawrence by White racists in 1993 received high-profile coverage, both on television and in the press.

Ethnic minorities as invisible – in 2005, a BBC News Online survey noted that Black and Asian people were represented as newscasters and television journalists, but the range of roles that ethnic minority actors play in television drama is very limited and often reflects low status, e.g. Africans may play cleaners or Asians may play shopkeepers. Ethnic minority audiences were also very hostile towards tokenism – the idea that programmes contain characters from ethnic minority groups purely because they ‘should’. Ethnic minority audiences complain that Black and Asian people are rarely shown as ordinary citizens who just happen to be Black or Asian."

The 3 extracts below are all good examples for analysis.

Ethnicity has only been used once as the focus for representation in the exam so should be treated as a HIGH possibility of the focus for this year's exam.

The representation of disability in the clip shows fascinating contrasts between characters with a disability and those without. 

The character of Ben has the mental disability Down Syndrome. His character portrays a stereotypical image of someone with a mental disability as he is shown throughout the extract as dependent on others, especially his brother David. During the final scene on the bus, the non-diegetic sound of David’s voice says that they have never been more than half a mile apart. This shows that David is always there for Ben and he doesn’t really leave his side. This reinforces the stereotype of disabled people, the fact that they can’t do things on their own and that they need someone to rely on for everything. During the scene in the kitchen, Ben shouts “I need a poo”. This is seen as a funny comedic line which is stereotypical as people with a mental disability are seen as inferior and peculiar compared to an able human.  

The character of David is portrayed as a stereotypical teenager. His views on his disabled brother Ben are fairly extreme. For example, the opening line of the extract is “Last summer I decided to kill my brother”. This shows that David isn’t very close to his brother. It’s non diegetic as it’s David’s thoughts speaking. They show the room in a bird’s eye view so the contrast between both halves of the room can be clearly seen. David’s half of the room, dull boring and colourless. Whereas Ben’s side is colourful and vibrant almost childlike. This continues the stereotype of Ben and his disability. During the kitchen scene, David tells Ben a story about how pigs are killed to make bacon. Shot reverse shot is used to show the look on David’s face when he tells the story, then it switches to Ben’s innocent face. This shows the audience how David is trying to wind up his disabled brother. 

This extract shows very stereotypical representations of disabled and able people.

Extract 2

The representation of physical ability and disability presents to us as the audience different aspect on how physical disability and ability affects the characters in everyday life.

The audience is first greeted with a high angle shot looking down into Ben and David’s room and immediately we can see a split between both sides. One side is colourful and the other is dull showing the audience that they are binary opposites of each other. The camera pans round David’s face to show his facial expression which is pure hatred towards Ben which is backed up by his dialogue “I decided to kill my brother”. Stereotypically Ben is shown with cartoonish bed sheets and children’s toys suggesting he is incapable of doing things you’d associate with his age group. We also get a close up of bens face as David is doing a voice over to clearly elaborate on the face Ben has Down syndrome. Montages of evolutionary pictures are shown matching David’s voice over talking about evolution a chemical. This is shown to show ben is a burden on David and that his voice is stereotypically used as humour and less of a serious issue since ben calls him “A potato with eye tentacles”. This phrase also could have a duel meaning suggesting that Ben is as incapable as a vegetable, a word people use to be demeaning towards people with a disability and therefore he can’t participate normally in daily life which is another stereotype. The way David treats ben can almost be described as sinister as he constantly saying derogatory things to Ben like how he yells at him for the Weetabix and explains in graphic detail how pigs are killed.

Ben’s mother and father treat him almost completely opposite to have David treats him. When Ben and David are having a dispute in the kitchen about the Weetabix the camera shot focuses on bens mother as she says “now that wasn’t very nice ben now was it” almost as it she was talking to a child. The shows that she is almost pitiful of ben and maybe feels bad for the way he turned out so she is more overprotective which is stereotypically how a abled bodied person would react in that scenario. Ben’s father acts slightly different as in he talks about ben like he isn’t even in the room. This is shown when Ben says “I need a poo” is a stereotypically humorous style and his dad tells David to go with him as he doesn’t want him to “make a mess like last time” whilst ben is still in the room. This shows that the father is ashamed as ben as to cope with the disappointment ignore the fact he exists. The phase the father said is also more evidence to show that Ben cannot do things normal people can do in daily life adding to the stereotype of a disabled person.

Extract 3

The non-diegetic sound in the film was a voice over from David (main character) and his thoughts about his younger brother Ben who has Down syndrome and considered a burden by David.in the beginning of the film we see a montage editing of evolution. David thinks that when mankind evolve disabled people have not yet managed to evolved David is deliberately unkind to Ben. There is tension between the two binary oppositions.  In the kitchen scene where David and Ben are eating breakfast, shot reverse shot, close up and ark are used for effect during their conversation. Shot reverse shot is used when either David or Ben is talking. A close up shot of Ben is taken when he and his brother are arguing over the Weetabix and as he is fantasising about killing his brother. Flashbacks are also used when David is thinking about him and his families previous holidays. An extreme close up is taken later showing Ben in a more sympathetic light. This makes the audience feel sympathetic towards Ben. Towards the end diegetic sound of dialogue in the background when Ben is left alone find his own way back home, the slow and sad music is then lowered to gain more sympathy for Ben from the audience. David refers to Ben as an abnormal kid when he says “normal kids”. Throw editing, inter close up from David to Ben is used to show the expressions of the two characters. David’s face reflects pure hatred and anger towards his brother whereas Bens face portrays innocence as he sleeps peaceful in his bed. This interpretation is also reflexes of the structure and colour scheme of their room. Ben and David share rooms, birds eye view angle shows you a clear image of their room. On the left side of the room everything is colourful and bright. This could a reflection of Ben’s autistic mind and how he likes things to be. On the other hand, there is David’s side of the room. This half is very dull and gloomy; this also could represent David’s thoughts about his life. Ben is a stereotypical representation of a disabled person. This mother treats him as if he as a baby -or a small child- and talks down to him. In some ways David is a representation of teenager; he likes to go out with his friends and likes to go to parties. He also dresses like a regular teenager. However, you could argue that David is not a regular teenager. This is because he has to always look after his younger brother, making sure that he doesn’t get in trouble or gets lost or gets hurt.

Extract 4

Coming Down the Mountain opens with a birds-eye shot of the boys’ bedroom to emphasise the binary opposition with a split down the middle of the room; although this is explored in greater detail in terms of mise-en-scene, having the shot looking down on the boys immediately presents the viewer with an outsider’s view of their relationship, without a character’s viewpoint altering anything. We are shown immediately that there is an emotional rift between the two boys where the physical one might not be so evident, due to their dissimilar interests and the physical distance in their placements in the shot. This particular shot is also interesting in the sense that we are exposed to Ben’s face as he sleeps on his back, which is quite a vulnerable position to be in, and also exposes the physical aspect of his disability. David, however, as the representation of an able-bodied person, is upright, guarded, and therefore we can only see the top of his head. Here, we see helplessness in the disabled representation, whereas the able are more capable of reserving themselves and being in control of their actions. During David’s narration, there is a close up on Ben when he speaks about, “a potato with eye sockets”, which immediately shows that he is referring to his brother in such a way. Essentially, Ben is being described as a vegetable with eyes. This isn’t just a physical comparison, but also mental; he is presenting people with Downs syndrome as being oblivious, inhuman, and incapable. Comedic relief aside, he is telling the audience that his brother and people like him are so dependent on others that they cannot function by themselves, and are more akin to food than they are people. Frequent close up shots on David show hateful expressions in his face to contrast with Ben’s oblivious looks, which gives us insight from both perspectives. Ben is shown to be naïve, as he doesn’t notice that his brother doesn’t like him, or at least does nothing to retaliate; David, on the other hand, is hateful, unsympathetic to Ben’s vulnerability, and has no desire to help him. Here, we are shown a representation of disabled people as a burden, one whose impact leaves collateral damage in the lives of people around him. During the kitchen scene, the camera shows many extreme close ups on Ben’s face, which is uncomfortable for some viewers due to his physical disability. Ben is given a regular close up – perhaps this is to emphasise to the viewer how discomforting and affronting Ben’s presence is in David’s life. Alternatively, it could be a physical representation of the extreme attention the family seems to give to Ben, while David is relegated to the sidelines, and seen as immature for protesting against the favouritism. There are subtle differences in camera angles in the final scene, in which David leaves Ben to go home by himself. The camera is always slightly above Ben, dwarfing him. As a viewer, we are looking down on him, creating vulnerability compared to David, who the camera is slightly below eye level with – he looks taller, more powerful, and in control. Again, we are given a clear image of David’s superiority in the relationship as an able-bodied person. Ben, who depends on him, and is afraid to travel home by himself, is forced to submissively agree to the more able, and therefore more powerful, David.

The montage edit of prehistoric man and creatures in the beginning gives the impression that able-bodied people are the natural products of evolution, whereas the disabled are abnormal, as if they are nature’s flukes. Cuts between shots from Ben to David (and vice versa) show a severe contrast between two boys. For example, in the opening, a frowning, upright, thoughtful David cuts to a sleeping, innocent, childlike Ben – David is the one that plans to kill his brother, being intelligent enough to do so, whereas Ben, the disabled brother, has no power to stop the violence that is to be inflicted on him. It happens again in scene one, in which Ben stares dumbly at his Weetabix before he eats it, only to cut to David frowning in distaste and disgust, his face scrunched – this communicates that disability is strange and disgusting, and they are opposite to able-bodied people in every way. The increase in pace in the tense moment of David trying to snatch the Weetabix ends on a prolonged shot of Ben being shielded by Dad. It is noticeable here how David’s shots at the breakfast table tend to feature him alone, whereas the whole family are on Ben’s side of the kitchen, perhaps emphasising the family split.

David narrates throughout the extract to give an insight into David’s perspective on Ben. Here, we see the divide in the representation of able and disabled people. For instance, David’s description of “normal kids” in opposition to “kids like Ben” divides the two into separate groups. There is also the admission of, “I had to get some space” after David leaves Ben to go home by himself. Again, we are shown that the disabled character is suffocating the abled one, and becoming the very bane of his life, to the point that he will put him in danger just to have some relief. The jolly, diegetic music from radio after the opening immediately sets a domestic scene of a family in the kitchen together, listening to a radio, suggesting that there is a sense of normality to this family. However, the lyrics, “wouldn’t it be nice if we were older” seem to parallel with David’s feelings that, if he weren’t a teenager under the command of his parents, he’d have freedom from the burden of Ben. When David is telling lies about killing pigs, there is a muffled, diegetic police siren sound as the story comes to a climax. As well as linking into David’s illegal plot to kill his brother and his troublemaker representation, it creates a starker contrast to Ben’s innocence, which is further shown by the non-diegetic music drowning out the ambience when he is on bus later in the extract. Perhaps this suggests his disconnection with the world around him because of his disability, and how he struggles to keep up with or blend into society because of it.

In terms of mise-en-scene, the panning shot around David’s half of the bedroom reveals a poster of the rock band Bring Me the Horizon. Immediately, we are influenced by stereotypes to interpret that David is a problem child, as the sort of teenagers that listen to such music are often seen as parent-hating delinquents. On the contrary, Ben’s messy and colourful room can be perceived as childish, therefore suggesting a lack in mental development that makes him inferior to the able. In the aforementioned scene, Ben is wearing a patterned shirt for pyjamas, which makes him seem emotionally younger than David. The latter seems to have been sleeping without a shirt, perhaps portraying him as more mature and masculine than his boyish sibling. The actors’ skill also plays a part; Mum coddles Ben, and speaks to him patronisingly, as if to a baby. This representation reflects a mother’s need to show her children love, but also shows how the disabled can be mollycoddled too much, and treated as inferior just because they aren’t like ‘normal’ people. Her insistence on calling David selfish for wanting Ben to share the Weetabix furthers this representation, showing that she will spoil Ben to ‘make up for’ his disability, and will punish David for acting out against the unequal treatment. Even the way she bids Ben goodbye and kisses him on her way out of the house, but completely ignores David, emphasises how she treats her disabled child as fragile, but doesn’t have as much care for the emotions of her able son. Dad doesn’t seem to have as much of a bias, but refers to Ben as if he isn’t in the room, as if he’s subhuman and can’t understand people talking about him. Once again, the disabled are seen as lesser beings that cannot be communicated with in the same way as the able. The costume in final scene is cleverly chosen to symbolise different traits about the boys. Ben wears a white hoodie, the colour of purity and innocence. This continues to portray him as the golden child that can do no wrong, and weakens him in comparison to David. The latter wears all dark colours, and appears more rugged. Due to his ability, which Ben doesn’t have, he is seen as the less innocent of the two, and is literally perceived as the black sheep of the family due to his awareness that treating Ben the way his parents do is pointless and unfair.

Model exam question

Sample Extract

1. Discuss the ways in which the following extract constructs the representation of age using the following:

• Camera shots, angle, movement and composition
• Editing
• Sound
• Mise-en-scene 

Exemplar Analysis

A low angle shot of tan leather shoes walking slowly but confidently across the floor suggests connotations of authority. This then cuts to a medium shot of an older teacher and two young pupils. The teacher conforms to stereotypical representations of older age through elements of the mise-en-scene including his dress code, body language but also his tone of voice. He wears an old fashioned cardigan, is standing with his hands in his pockets and is talking in a sarcastic way to the pupils who wear school uniform (signifying binary oppositions of age), stutter and lack confidence when replying. The teacher is then framed centrally between the two pupils. The camera cuts to a two shot in medium close up of him standing next to a younger teacher again promoting his stereotypical age and wisdom by patronising her for not insuring the video camera in diegetic dialogue and using his body language.

This shot then cuts to a scene where we see an older male site manager (the camera shows a close up of his door plaque) and a young male pupil in conversation. The pupil’s body language is stereotypical as he leans against a wall while the non conformist way he wears his tie (not tied up properly, big knot) has stereotypical connotations of rebellious youth culture. The older site manager sounds verbally more confident and although not a teacher is smartly dressed for the work environment with a pencil behind his ear, itself having connotations of work. This frames him in binary opposition to the boy who appears lazy and who is persuaded by the older wiser site manager to go away and write his essay. In a short period of time during these first two scenes clear stereotypes of older age signifying wisdom and youth signifying rebellion are established.

A long shot front on shows two girls and a boy walking into medium shot along a school corridor. Again, the girls’ dress code suggests rebellion while all three are discussing their parents and a problem with a fellow pupil’s parents. This furthers the connotations of their young age and emphasises their vulnerability and reliance on older adults. However, the connotations of age and wisdom are disrupted in this scene as a close up reveals a girl who describes her parents as a “dad who never comes home” and a “mum who is a ho-bag”. This burst of diegetic dialogue is important in challenging age stereotypes representing older people as more responsible, as quirky upbeat non-diegetic music starts. This music reinforces stereotypes of youth culture and the school environment they are in.

In the following scene we see a male teacher positioned higher than his pupils behind a desk in a stereotypical classroom situation. He is framed in medium shot. The mise-en-scene anchors his age, authority and status with objects and props including school desks, books, wall displays and a white board projection representing the younger pupils. In terms of dress code there is also a clear difference between the older teacher and the students as his authority is revealed by his dress code, which includes a shirt and tie but also with sleeves rolled up suggesting he is ready for some serious work. The pupils wear their uniforms casually rejecting stereotypical conformity with one girl wearing larger hooped earrings.

The non-diegetic music changes to something more fast tempo as club music (more upbeat than before) and use of hand held camera introduce two students, Amy and Stuart, in confrontation. The moving hand held camera, increased tempo of the music and framing all add to reinforce the fact that this is a stereotypical school spat between two young pupils. As the teacher rushes in the pace of the editing increases as it appears that the boy is having an asthma attack. The older teacher uses his stereotypical calmness and authority to deal with the situation while diegetic dialogue parallels the anxiety that the editing represents with phrases uttered by the teacher like “where is his inhaler?” The club music is edited into a piece of music with more hip hop connotations and is used as a sound bridge to the next scene cutting to a low angle shot of a man in front of a set of doors.

The camera tilts up to reveal an older Maths teacher looking embarrassed wearing stereotypically young person’s clothing including low slung jeans with high visible underpants, trainers and a music t-shirt. This then intercuts with a shot of a bubbly young girl in high angle standing on the stair trying to reassure him that he looks OK. The camerawork challenges the traditional meaning of low angle and high angle by representing the subject shot in low angle (the teacher) as vulnerable; he is trying to appeal more to his pupils by dressing younger. His vulnerability is reinforced by a two shot of two schoolgirls laughing at him for trying to look more fashionable even though the girl on the stairs states: “what do kids know about fashion?” In this respect the girl on the stairs challenges the stereotype of a younger person by showing stronger affiliation with someone who is older than her rather than siding with those who are closer to her own age. Finally, a medium close up of two teachers reveals one trying to persuade the other to go back to his usual dress code while the presence for the first time of only adults in the frame signifies the end of the non-diegetic music.

Explanation/analysis/argument: 

• Excellent understanding of the way that technical aspects are used to construct a representation. 
• Clear logical deconstruction of text linking directly to the question.

Use of examples: 

• Good range of examples and appropriate sequences analysed to reveal a representation. There are some other examples that could have been referred to but this does not deter from the overall quality of the essay.
• The key focus has been on camera shots, angles, movement, composition, mise-en-scene and sound with some reference to editing, which perhaps could have been developed a little more.

Use of Terminology: 

• Sophisticated use of media language and technical terminology.

QWC (Quality of Written Communication)

Complex issues expressed clearly and fluently, sentences and paragraphs consistently relevant and well structured with few, if any, errors of grammar, spelling and punctuation.

Mark: 46/50 (A Grade equivalent)

G322 Exam

G322 Exam

On this page you will find all of then information that you need about the G322 exam which will take place in May 2017.

The Basics

There are two sections to this paper:

Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation (50 marks) 

Section B: Institutions and Audiences (50 marks)

The purpose of the 2 sections of the exam is:

Section A

to assess your media textual analysis skills and your understanding of the concept of representation using a short unseen moving image extract (AO1, AO2); 

Section B

to assess your knowledge and understanding of media institutions and their production processes, distribution strategies, use of technologies and related issues concerning audience reception and consumption of media texts (AO1, AO2):

The examination is two hours (including 30 minutes for viewing and making notes on the moving image extract) and you will be required to answer two compulsory questions. 

The unit is marked out of a total of 100, with each question marked out of 50.

Section A

In the first part of the exam you will be shown an ‘unseen’ moving image extract with one compulsory question dealing with textual analysis of various technical aspects of the languages and conventions of moving image media. 

You will be asked to link this analysis with a discussion of some aspect of representation within the sequence.

The unseen moving image extract will be four to five minutes long and will be from a television drama.


The sequence will be taken from a contemporary one-off drama or series or serial drama programme scheduled on British television stations including some sourced from other countries.

You will be prepared for this part of the examination using a range of examples from texts from the genre stated above.

You will be expected to analyse the extract through an exploration of how the 4 codes below are used:

• Camerawork (Camera Angle, Shot, Movement and Composition)
• Mise-en-Scène
• Editing
• Sound

Media Terminology

In order to be able to analyse the extract effectively you must have a clear understanding of what the following terms mean in relation to each of the codes:

Here are explanations for key media vocabulary terms that you need to be able to identify (and explain the effect of) in the exam.

Remember that 10 of the 50 marks available for your response in the exam are for the correct use of terminology.

Camera Shots, Angle, Movement and Composition

Aerial Shot 


A camera shot taken from an overhead position. Often used as an establishing shot.


Close Up 


A head and shoulders shot often used to show expressions/emotions of a character. Also can be a shot of an object, filmed from close to the object or zoomed in to it, that reveals detail.


Extreme Close Up 


A shot where a part of a face or body of a character fills the whole frame/dominates the frame. Also can be a shot of an object where only a small part of it dominates the frame.


Establishing Shot 


A shot that establishes a scene, often giving ther viewer information about where the scene is set. Can be a close up shot (of a sign etc) but is often a wide/long shot and usually appears at the beginning of a scene.


Medium Shot 


The framing of a subject from waist up.


Two Shot 


A shot of two characters, possible engaging in conversation. Usually to signify/establish some sort of relationship


Point-Of-View Shot (POV) 


Shows a view from the subject’s perspective. This shot is usually edited so that the viewer is aware who’s point of view it is.


Over the Shoulder Shot 


Looking from behind a character’s shoulder, at a subject. The character facing the subject usually occupies 1/3 of the frame but it depends on what meaning the director wants to create (for example, if the subject is an inferior character, the character facing them may take up more of the frame to emphaise this)


Reaction Shot 


A shot that shows the reaction of a character either to another character or an event within the sequence.


Camera Angle 


The position of the camera in relation to the subject of a shot. The camera might be at a high angle, a low angle or at eye level with what is being filmed.


High Angle 


A camera angle that looks down upon a subject or object. Often used to make the subject or object appear small or vulnerable.

Low Angle 


A camera angle that looks up at a subject or object. Often used to make the subject/object appear powerful/dominant.


Canted Angle (or oblique) 


Camera angle that makes what is shot appear to be skewed or tilted.


Pan 

Where the camera pivots horizontally, either from right to left or left to right to reveal a set or setting. This can be used to give the viewer a panoramic view. Sometimes used to establish a scene.


Track 


A shot whjere the camera follows a subject/object. The tracking shot can include smooth movements forward, backward, along the side of the subject, or on a curve but cannot include complex movement around a subject. ‘Track’ refers to rails in which a wheeled platform (which has the camera on it) sits on in order to carry out smooth movement.


Crane 


A crane shot is sometimes used to signify the end of a scene/ programme /film. The effect is achieved by the camera being put onto a crane that can move upward.


Steadicam 


A steadicam is a stabilising mount for a camera which mechanically isolates the operator's movement from the camera, allowing a very smooth shot even when the operator is moving quickly over an uneven surface. Informally, the word may also be used to refer to the combination of the mount and camera.


Tilt 


Where a camera scans a set or setting vertically (otherwise similar to a pan).


Zoom 


Using a zoom lens to appear to be moving closer to (zoom in) or further away from (zoom out) a subject/object when in fact the camera may not move (so, strictly not camera movement). Can be used for dramatic effect.

Editing 

The stage in the film-making process in which sound and images are organised into an overall narrative.


Continuity Editing 


The most common type of editing, which aims to create a sense of reality and time moving forward. Also nick named invisible editing referring to how the technique does not draw attention to the editing process.


Jump Cut 


An abrupt, disorientating transitional device in the middle of a continuous shot in which the action is noticeably advanced in time and/or cut between two similar shots, usually done to create discontinuity for artistic effect.


Cross Cutting 


The editing technique of alternating, interweaving, or interspersing one narrative action (scene, sequence or event) with another – usually in different locations or places, thus combining the two: this editing technique usually suggests Parallel action (that takes place simultaneously). Often used to dramatically build tension and/or suspense in chase scenes or to compare two different scenes. Also known as inter-cutting or parallel editing


Cutaways 


A brief shot that momentarily interrupts continuous action by briefly inserting another related action. Object, or person (sometimes not part of the principle scene or main action), followed by a cutback to the original shot.


Freeze Frame 


The effect of seemingly stopping a film in order to focus in on one event or element.


Eye-line Match 


A type of edit which cuts from one character to what that character has been looking at.


Flashback 

A scene or moment in a film in which the audience is shown an event that happened earlier in the film’s narrative.


Graphic Match 


An edit effect in which two different objects of the same shape are dissolved from one into the other.


Linear Narrative 


A style of storytelling in which events happen chronologically.


Montage Editing 


The juxtaposition of seemingly unconnected images in order to create meaning.


Parallel Editing 


A type of editing in which events in two locations are cut together, in order to imply a connection between the two sets of events.


Visual Effects 


Visual effects are usually used to alter previously-filmed elements by adding, removing or enhancing objects within the scene. (see Cross Cutting)


Match on Action 


A shot that emphasises continuity of space and time by matching the action of the preceding shot with the continuation of the action. (For example a shot of a door opening after a shot of a close up of a character’s hand turning a door handle)

Sound

Diegetic Sound 


Sound that can be heard by the characters within a scene/ sound part of the imaginary world.


Non-diegetic Sound 


Sound that the characters cannot hear and is not part of the imaginary world of the story. This includes a musical soundtrack or a voiceover (however this excludes a narration by a character within the story – referred to as an internal monologue and is diegetic).


Score 


The musical component of a programme’s soundtrack, usually composed specifically for the scene.


Sound Effects 


Sounds that are added to a film during the post-production stage.

Mise-en-scene 

all of the elements placed in front of the camera to be photographed; the settings and props, lighting, costume, make-up and figure behaviour.


Location 


The particular place and time created in the frame. 


Set 


The surroundings where the action will unfold; usually the stage, including integral design features.


Studio/set design 


The overall design concept present in the frame, relating to the set. 


Costume 


A style or fashion of dress, especially that of a particular place, time or class. Also hair and make-up.


Properties - (props)


Movable objects used in the construction of the mise-en-scene.


Positioning 


Of characters and objects within the frame.


Body language 


How characters behave physically including their facial expressions.


Production Design


Utilised to create characteristics within a mise-en-scene reflective of a certain historical period.


Colour design 


The style and combination of colours used in generating the mise-en-scene.


Lighting 


High key lighting: illumination that creates comparatively little contrast between the light and dark areas of the shot. Shadows are fairly transparent and brightened by fill light. 

Low key lighting: illumination that creates strong contrast between light and dark areas of the shot, with deep shadows and little fill light.

Representation

Do you know what 'representation' means in relation to media studies?

Representation is a specific media concept that you have to understand and be able to apply.

Representation is how media texts deal with and present gender, age, ethnicity, national and regional identity, social issues and events to an audience. 

Media texts have the power to shape an audience’s knowledge and understanding about these important topics.

This makes them very powerful in terms of influencing ideas and attitudes.

In order to analyse media texts to determine how they've represented ideas and issues, it's important to be familiar with some of the key terms.

Key terms in Representation

Construction

This is the way a media text is put together. In a film or television programme this includes the editing and choice of camera angles, in a magazine or newspaper it includes the layout and writing as well as the choice of images.

Mediation

This is the process everything goes through before it reaches an audience.
This can be how a film script is written and re-written before it makes it to production, how newspaper or magazine photographs are cropped and captioned, or how real life events - like a protest or a speech by a politician - are portrayed in a news report.

Selection

This refers to what has been selected to include in a media text.
This can be particularly important in newspaper articles, where selecting certain facts over others can change the angle of a story; what is omitted is sometimes as important as what is included.

Stereotypes

These are a simplified representation of a person, groups of people or a place, through basic or obvious characteristics - which are often exaggerated.For example, Vicky Pollard from Little Britain is a stereotypical example of a working class teenage girl.

They can be used to describe characters quickly, relying on existing audience recognition.
Stereotypes are dangerous as they can lead audiences to generalise about people or places.

Ideology

These are ideas and beliefs, held by media producers, which are often represented in their media texts.

In a newspaper, the ideology of the owner or senior editors could influence the way certain stories are represented, such as lending support to a particular political party.


In a documentary about asylum seekers, the representation of their story could be influenced by the ideology of the filmmaker or producer.

Exam Question 

In the exam your question will be as follows:

Discuss the ways in which the extract constructs the representation of x using the following:

camera shots, angles, movement and composition

editing

sound

mise-en-scene

If you get confused by the wording of the question think of it this way instead:


How is X re-presented to the audience by using the following:

• camera shots, angles, movement and composition
• editing
• sound
• mise-en-scene

The 7 Areas Of Representation

The 7 social groups which could be the focus of the questions are as follows:

Age

Gender

Ethnicity

Sexuality

Social Class and Status

Regional Identity

Physical Ability and Disability